Economic Impact of ME/CFS: Health Economics and Cost-of-Illness Research

1 IOM 2015 — $17-24 Billion Economic Cost Estimate

• Full Citation:: Institute of Medicine (US). Beyond Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Redefining an Illness. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2015. (Committee on the Diagnostic Criteria for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 2015)
• ISBN:: 978-0-309-31689-7
• DOI:: 10.17226/19012
• Key Findings::
  • Estimates 836,000–2.5 million Americans affected by ME/CFS
  • Direct and indirect economic costs: $17–24 billion annually in the US
  • 84–91% undiagnosed rate amplifies economic burden through delayed care and misdiagnosis
  • Lost productivity accounts for the majority of costs
  • Proposed SEID diagnostic criteria to improve case identification
• Certainty Score:: 0.85 – government report, landmark, formally adopted by CDC

2 Jason and Mirin 2020 — Updated IOM Economic Impact Figures

• Full Citation:: Jason LA, Mirin AA. Updating the National Academy of Medicine ME/CFS Prevalence and Economic Impact Figures to Account for Population Growth and Inflation. Fatigue: Biomedicine, Health & Behavior. 2020;8(2):60-72. (Jason and Mirin 2020)
• DOI:: 10.1080/21641846.2020.1779051
• Key Findings::
  • Updated IOM 2015 $17–24B estimate to $36–51B annually (2020 dollars)
  • Prevalence estimate revised upward to 1.5–3.3 million US cases
  • Confirmed indirect costs (lost productivity) dominate total economic burden
• Limitations:: Extrapolation rather than primary data; relies on IOM 2015 per-patient cost assumptions
• Certainty:: 0.60

3 Vester et al. 2026 — Burden of Disease: Scoping Review

• Full Citation:: Vester P, Boudouroglou-Walter S, Schreyoegg J, Wieting C, Blome C. Burden of Disease in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS): A Scoping Review. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy. 2026;24(1):147-161. (Vester et al. 2026)
• DOI:: 10.1007/s40258-025-01006-2
• PMID:: 40986167
• Study Design:: Systematic scoping review
• Sample:: 20 studies (global scope)
• Key Findings::
  • Annual per-patient costs range from $2,916 to $119,611
  • DALYs 0.714M–5.77M in the US
  • Indirect costs dominate in all studies
  • Only 20 cost-of-illness studies globally
  • Standardised methodology urgently needed
• Conclusion:: Most comprehensive economic burden review to date. Confirms substantial economic burden with major methodology gaps.
• Certainty:: 0.70

4 Risklayer / ME-CFS Research Foundation 2026 — Germany Long COVID + ME/CFS Cost Report (Update)

• Full Citation:: Daniell J, Brand J, Paessler D, Heydecke J, Schoening S, Nikoloudis ML, Manser V, McLennan AK. The rising cost of Long COVID and ME/CFS in Germany: 2026 update. April 2026. Hamburg and Karlsruhe: ME/CFS Research Foundation and Risklayer. (Daniell et al. 2026)
• URL:: https://mecfs-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/The-rising-cost-of-Long-COVID-and-MECFS-in-Germany-2026-update.pdf
• Type:: Gray literature — commissioned cost-of-illness report (NOT peer-reviewed)
• Key Findings::
  • Combined Long COVID + ME/CFS cost of EUR 318.8 billion across 2020–2025
  • EUR 64.4 billion in 2025 alone = 1.44% of German GDP
  • Prevalence end-2025: 756,808 Long COVID + 656,951 ME/CFS (combined >1.4M); ME/CFS caseload rising while Long COVID falls
  • ME/CFS recovery rate ~5%/year — low recovery is a key cost driver
  • Corrected SARS-CoV-2 infection estimate of 13–15 million in 2025 (80–200x the official RKI figure)
  • Federal research spending ~EUR 40M/yr versus the EUR 64.4B 2025 cost = 0.06%
  • “National Decade Against Post-infectious Diseases”: EUR 500M over 10 years (EUR 50M/yr)
  • Funding split since 2022: 22% biomedical (EUR 50M) vs 71% healthcare-services research (EUR 157M)
• Conclusion:: Long COVID and ME/CFS impose a substantial and rising societal cost in Germany (~1.44% of GDP in 2025), while research funding remains orders of magnitude below the modelled burden — motivating the National Decade policy initiative.
• Limitations:: Gray literature (not peer-reviewed); Monte Carlo modelled estimate from a risk-modelling firm + patient-advocacy-adjacent research foundation; cost figures depend on reconstructed (non-official) infection counts and assumed recovery/transition parameters; 2026 edition supersedes 2025 but shares the same model and team — a single evidence source, not independent replication.
• Certainty:: 0.55

5 Risklayer / ME-CFS Research Foundation 2025 — Germany Long COVID + ME/CFS Cost Report (Original)

• Full Citation:: Daniell J, Brand J, Paessler D, Heydecke J, Schoening S, McLennan AK. The rising cost of Long COVID and ME/CFS in Germany. May 2025. Hamburg and Karlsruhe: ME/CFS Research Foundation and Risklayer. (Daniell et al. 2025)
• URL:: https://mecfs-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/The-rising-cost-of-Long-COVID-and-MECFS-in-Germany.pdf
• Type:: Gray literature — commissioned cost-of-illness report (NOT peer-reviewed)
• Key Findings::
  • Establishes the reproducible Monte Carlo framework modelling SARS-CoV-2 infection → Long COVID → ME/CFS progression
  • Decomposes cost into societal, employer, personal, and medical components
  • 2024 combined cost equating to ~1.5% of German GDP (superseded by the 2026 update’s 1.44% for 2025)
• Conclusion:: The original framework establishing that Long COVID and ME/CFS together impose a cost on the scale of a percentage point of German GDP, with low recovery rates as the central driver.
• Limitations:: Superseded by the 2026 update; same model and author team as the update (single evidence source, not independent replication); gray literature, not peer-reviewed.
• Certainty:: 0.55

6 Risklayer 2025 — COVID-19 Infection-Number Modelling for Germany (Supporting Model Preprint)

• Full Citation:: Risklayer GmbH. Update 2025: Modellierung der COVID-Infektionszahlen in Deutschland 2020–2025. 2025. (GmbH 2025)
• URL:: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/400861280_Update_2025_Modellierung_der_COVID-Infektionszahlen_in_Deutschland_2020-2025
• Type:: Gray literature — supporting model preprint (German)
• Key Findings::
  • Documents the corrected SARS-CoV-2 infection-number reconstruction underpinning the cost report’s caseload estimates
  • Underpins the 13–15 million (80–200x official) 2025 infection estimate
• Conclusion:: Provides the epidemiological input to the cost model; companion code and data are public on GitHub (MIT / CC-BY-4.0).
• Limitations:: Preprint, not peer-reviewed; not independently re-analysed here; ResearchGate-hosted.
• Certainty:: 0.55

7 Gandjour 2024 — Societal Value of a Prospective ME/CFS Drug in Germany

• Full Citation:: Gandjour A. Determining the societal value of a prospective drug for ME/CFS in Germany. PLoS ONE. 2024;19(7):e0307086. (Gandjour 2024)
• DOI:: 10.1371/journal.pone.0307086
• PMID:: 39024303
• Key Findings::
  • A prospective ME/CFS drug is estimated to yield ~29,000 QALYs and ~EUR 2.6 billion societal value (German perspective)
  • Optimal German public R&D investment estimated at EUR 676 million — about a quarter of total drug-development cost
  • Results confirmed in sensitivity analysis; concludes a coordinated international approach is imperative
• Conclusion:: Peer-reviewed German health-economics modelling that quantifies the funding gap: the societal value of an effective ME/CFS drug far exceeds current investment — consistent with the cost report’s funding-gap thesis.
• Limitations:: Single-author modelling of a hypothetical (not yet existing) drug; relies on assumed efficacy and cost parameters; measures prospective value rather than current measured burden.
• Certainty:: 0.55

8 Walter et al. 2022 — German Nationwide Inpatient Data on Post-COVID Syndrome Including Direct Costs

• Full Citation:: Walter N, Rupp M, Lang S, Leinberger B, Alt V, Hinterberger T, Loew T. A Comprehensive Report of German Nationwide Inpatient Data on the Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Including Annual Direct Healthcare Costs. Viruses. 2022;14(12):2600. (Walter et al. 2022)
• DOI:: 10.3390/v14122600
• PMID:: 36560604
• Key Findings::
  • Nationwide German claims-based overview of hospitalized Post-COVID Syndrome (PCS): case counts, in-hospital mortality, ICU treatment
  • Documents main concomitant diagnoses and most frequent treatment procedures
  • Quantifies annual direct healthcare costs of PCS
• Conclusion:: Peer-reviewed empirical (claims-data) estimate of the direct healthcare cost of Post-COVID Syndrome in Germany — a partial complement to the cost report’s societal (direct + indirect) estimate.
• Limitations:: Direct/inpatient costs only — excludes productivity and other indirect costs, so not comparable in magnitude to the report’s societal figure; pre-dates the 2026 caseload update; hospitalised PCS is not identical to the broader Long COVID/ME/CFS population.
• Certainty:: 0.65

9 Charlton et al. 2026 — Satellite Cell Depletion in ME/CFS and Long COVID (AMS Conference Abstract C14)

• Full Citation:: Charlton BT, Slaghekke A, Huijts JY, Appelman B, Chen PL, Goulding RP, Bloemers F, Posthuma JJ, van Amstel P, Noort W, Jaspers RT, van Vugt M, Wüst RCI. An Inability to Recover: Reduced Regenerative Markers and Altered Metabolism in Patients with ME/CFS and Long COVID. AMS 2026 Conference, Abstract C14. (Charlton et al. 2026)
• Study Design:: Cross-sectional case-control; vastus lateralis biopsy; IHC for Pax7 (satellite cells) and PDGFRα (FAP cells); high-resolution respirometry; metabolomics
• Sample Size:: n=26 ME/CFS, n=25 Long COVID, n=30 healthy controls
• Key Findings::
  • Reduced Pax7+ satellite cells (P<0.001) — first direct measurement in ME/CFS/LC
  • Trending reduced PDGFRα+ FAP cells (P=0.061) — niche support cells
  • SC count correlated with OXPHOS capacity (r=0.43, P=0.0035)
  • Metabolic shift away from oxidative metabolism
  • Reduced antioxidative metabolites
• Conclusion:: Satellite cell depletion, linked to impaired oxidative phosphorylation, may explain the inability to repair exercise-induced muscle damage in ME/CFS and LC.
• Limitations:: Conference abstract — no full methods, subgroup analyses, or confounder-adjusted models available; single biobank (same cohort as Appelman 2024, Charlton 2025, Slaghekke 2026 F5); no independent replication; no functional SC assays; no adjustment for age/menopause/physical activity.
• Certainty:: 0.40

10 Hejbøl et al. 2022 — Myopathy in Post-COVID Fatigue (Muscle Biopsy Histopathology)

• Full Citation:: Hejbøl EK, Harbo T, Agergaard J, Madsen LB, Pedersen TH, Østergaard LJ, Tankisi H, Schrøder HD. Myopathy as a Cause of Fatigue in Long-Term Post-COVID-19 Symptoms: Evidence of Skeletal Muscle Histopathology. European Journal of Neurology. 2022;29(9):2832-2841. (Hejbøl et al. 2022)
• DOI:: 10.1111/ene.15435
• PMID:: 35661354
• Study Design:: Cross-sectional case-control; vastus lateralis biopsy with histopathology
• Sample:: n=14 Long COVID with fatigue, n=6 healthy controls
• Key Findings::
  • Fiber atrophy in 71% of patients
  • Fiber type grouping in 57% (indicates denervation-reinnervation cycles)
  • Signs of muscle regeneration in 43% (split fibers, central nuclei)
  • Type II fiber predominance in 36%
  • Consistent with repeated cycles of damage and incomplete repair
• Conclusion:: Long COVID fatigue is associated with myopathic changes including evidence of incomplete muscle regeneration — indirect evidence for impaired satellite cell function.
• Limitations:: Small sample; no direct SC quantification (pre-Charlton 2026); cross-sectional; no ME/CFS comparator group.
• Certainty:: 0.60

11 Gerwyn and Maes 2017 — Muscle Fatigue and Pain Mechanisms in ME/CFS

• Full Citation:: Gerwyn M, Maes M. Mechanisms Explaining Muscle Fatigue and Muscle Pain in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS): A Review of Recent Findings. Current Rheumatology Reports. 2017;19(1):1. (Gerwyn and Maes 2017)
• DOI:: 10.1007/s11926-017-0628-x
• PMID:: 28116577
• Study Design:: Narrative review
• Key Findings::
  • Chronic oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) in ME/CFS muscle
  • O&NS impairs muscle repair and adaptive responses to physical activity
  • Reduced heat shock protein production compromises muscle stress tolerance
  • Links systemic inflammation to impaired muscle regeneration
• Conclusion:: Chronic O&NS and impaired heat shock protein production may explain impaired muscle repair in ME/CFS — providing mechanistic support for satellite cell dysfunction observed 9 years later.
• Limitations:: Narrative review from researchers associated with the O&NS hypothesis; no direct SC data; pre-COVID.
• Certainty:: 0.40

12 Colosio et al. 2023 — Structural and Functional Skeletal Muscle Impairments in PASC

• Full Citation:: Colosio M, Brocca L, Gatti MF, Neri M, Crea E, Cadile F, Canepari M, Pellegrino MA, Polla B, Bottinelli R. Structural and Functional Impairments of Skeletal Muscle in Patients with Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2023;135(4):902-917. (Colosio et al. 2023)
• DOI:: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00119.2023
• PMID:: 37675472
• Study Design:: Cross-sectional case-control; vastus lateralis biopsy + single fiber contractile measurements
• Sample:: n=22 PASC patients, n=11 controls
• Key Findings::
  • Reduced cross-sectional area of type IIx fibers (P=0.02)
  • Lower specific force in skinned fibers
  • Preserved mitochondrial respiration (unlike Charlton 2026)
  • No frank atrophy — early-stage functional impairment
• Conclusion:: Functional impairment may precede structural degeneration in PASC — suggestive of inadequate or incomplete regenerative response.
• Limitations:: Inconsistent with Charlton/Wüst finding of reduced OXPHOS; no regenerative markers quantified (pre-Charlton 2026 SC data); moderate sample.
• Certainty:: 0.55

13 Bhattacharya and Scimè 2024 — Metabolic Reprogramming in Satellite Cells

• Full Citation:: Bhattacharya D, Scimè A. Metabolic Reprogramming in Skeletal Muscle Stem Cells During Activation and Differentiation. Skeletal Muscle. 2024;14:18. (Bhattacharya and Scimè 2024)
• DOI:: 10.1186/s13395-024-00352-2
• PMID:: 40917051
• Study Design:: Expert review
• Key Findings::
  • Quiescent SCs rely on fatty acid oxidation
  • SC activation triggers a metabolic switch to glycolysis
  • Differentiation requires mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS
  • Impaired OXPHOS directly blocks myogenic differentiation
• Conclusion:: The SC-OXPHOS dependency provides mechanistic basis for the Charlton 2026 r=0.43 correlation: mitochondrial dysfunction in ME/CFS would be expected to impair SC differentiation and self-renewal.
• Limitations:: Review paper; no disease-specific data; general biology.
• Certainty:: 0.75

14 Dumont et al. 2015 — Satellite Cell Biology (Comprehensive Review)

• Full Citation:: Dumont NA, Bentzinger CF, Sincennes MC, Rudnicki MA. Satellite Cells and Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Comprehensive Physiology. 2015;5(3):1027-1059. (Dumont et al. 2015)
• DOI:: 10.1002/cphy.c140068
• PMID:: 26140708
• Study Design:: Authoritative comprehensive review (Rudnicki lab — world-leading SC research group)
• Key Findings::
  • Pax7 as the canonical SC marker and master regulator
  • SC quiescence, activation, proliferation, self-renewal, and differentiation cascade
  • Myf5-MyoD-Myogenin regulatory cascade
  • SC niche composition and regulation
  • Mechanisms of SC depletion with aging and disease
• Conclusion:: Foundational reference for interpreting Pax7+ SC depletion data in any disease context.
• Limitations:: No ME/CFS data; general biology review.
• Certainty:: 0.85

15 Yin et al. 2013 — Satellite Cell Niche Biology

• Full Citation:: Yin H, Price F, Rudnicki MA. Satellite Cells and the Muscle Stem Cell Niche. Physiological Reviews. 2013;93(1):23-67. (Yin, Price, and Rudnicki 2013)
• DOI:: 10.1152/physrev.00043.2011
• PMID:: 23303905
• Study Design:: Authoritative comprehensive review (Rudnicki lab)
• Key Findings::
  • FAP cells (PDGFRα+) are essential niche support cells for SCs
  • Inflammatory signals (TNFα, IL-6) activate SCs — but chronic exposure drives exhaustion
  • Oxidative stress impairs SC self-renewal
  • SC depletion is a recognized consequence of chronic inflammatory disease
• Conclusion:: The Charlton 2026 finding of both SC depletion and trending FAP depletion suggests the SC niche itself may be compromised. Chronic inflammation (well-documented in ME/CFS) is an established driver of SC exhaustion.
• Limitations:: No ME/CFS data; general biology review.
• Certainty:: 0.90

16 Soares et al. 2022 — Skeletal Muscle in Acute and Post-Acute COVID-19

• Full Citation:: Soares MN, Eggelbusch M, Naddaf E, Gerrits KHL, van der Schaaf M, van den Borst B, Wiersinga WJ, van Vugt M, Weijs PJM, van Gassel RJJ, Jörneskog G, Denissen KFM, Wüst RCI. Skeletal Muscle Alterations in Patients with Acute COVID-19 and Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle. 2022;13(1):11-22. (Soares et al. 2022)
• DOI:: 10.1002/jcsm.12872
• PMID:: 34997689
• Study Design:: Narrative review (same Wüst lab)
• Key Findings::
  • Skeletal muscle atrophy in acute COVID-19 via multiple pathways (immobilization, inflammation, hypoxia, corticosteroids)
  • Impaired regenerative capacity recognized as post-acute sequela
  • Mitochondrial dysfunction and capillary rarefaction in post-COVID muscle
  • Precedent for muscle structural pathology in post-viral syndromes
• Conclusion:: Establishes the research context for the Wüst lab’s subsequent muscle biopsy program in post-viral fatigue.
• Limitations:: Narrative review; same lab as primary SC finding; no original SC data.
• Certainty:: 0.60

17 Vecchiet et al. 1996 — Early CFS Muscle Biopsy with Regeneration and Mitochondrial Pathology

• Full Citation:: Vecchiet L, Montanari G, Pizzigallo E, Iezzi S, de Bigontina P, Dragani L, Vecchiet J, Giamberardino MA. Sensory Characterization of Somatic Parietal Tissues in Humans with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Neuroscience Letters. 1996;208(2):117-120. (Vecchiet et al. 1996)
• DOI:: 10.1016/0304-3940(96)12559-3
• PMID:: 8859904
• Study Design:: Cross-sectional; quadriceps biopsy + pain thresholds + electron microscopy
• Sample:: n=21 CFS patients, n=4 controls (biopsy subset n=9)
• Key Findings::
  • Morphostructural sarcoplasmic alterations: fatty degeneration, fibrous regeneration
  • Mitochondrial polymorphism and monstrosity on EM
  • Reduced mitochondrial enzyme activities (cytochrome oxidase/succinate dehydrogenase)
  • mtDNA common deletion 4977bp elevated 150-3000× normal values
  • Selective muscle hyperalgesia (P<0.001) with normal skin/subcutis thresholds
• Conclusion:: Earliest evidence of disrupted muscle regeneration and mitochondrial pathology in CFS, published 30 years before Charlton 2026 but consistent with satellite cell dysfunction.
• Limitations:: Small sample (n=9 biopsied); 1990s methodology; no SC-specific markers; pre-consensus diagnostic criteria.
• Certainty:: 0.25

References

Bhattacharya, Debashish, and Anthony Scimè. 2024. “Metabolic Reprogramming in Skeletal Muscle Stem Cells During Activation and Differentiation.” Skeletal Muscle 14: 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13395-024-00352-2.

Charlton, Braeden T., Anouk Slaghekke, Jelle Y. Huijts, Brent Appelman, P. L. Chen, Richie P. Goulding, Frank W. Bloemers, et al. 2026. “An Inability to Recover: Reduced Regenerative Markers and Altered Metabolism in Patients with ME/CFS and Long COVID.” AMS 2026 Conference, Abstract C14.

Colosio, Matteo, Lorenza Brocca, M. F. Gatti, M. Neri, E. Crea, F. Cadile, Monica Canepari, M. A. Pellegrino, Biagio Polla, and Roberto Bottinelli. 2023. “Structural and Functional Impairments of Skeletal Muscle in Patients with Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection.” Journal of Applied Physiology 135 (4): 902–17. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00119.2023.

Committee on the Diagnostic Criteria for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. 2015. Beyond Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Redefining an Illness. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/19012.

Daniell, James, Johannes Brand, Dirk Paessler, Joerg Heydecke, Simon Schoening, and Amy McLennan. 2025. “The Rising Cost of Long COVID and ME/CFS in Germany.” Risklayer GmbH; ME/CFS Research Foundation gGmbH. https://mecfs-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/The-rising-cost-of-Long-COVID-and-MECFS-in-Germany.pdf.

Daniell, James, Johannes Brand, Dirk Paessler, Joerg Heydecke, Simon Schoening, Maria Lucia Nikoloudis, Vera Manser, and Amy McLennan. 2026. “The Rising Cost of Long COVID and ME/CFS in Germany: 2026 Update.” Risklayer GmbH; ME/CFS Research Foundation gGmbH. https://mecfs-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/The-rising-cost-of-Long-COVID-and-MECFS-in-Germany-2026-update.pdf.

Dumont, Nicolas A., C. Florian Bentzinger, Marie-Claude Sincennes, and Michael A. Rudnicki. 2015. “Satellite Cells and Skeletal Muscle Regeneration.” Comprehensive Physiology 5 (3): 1027–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c140068.

Gandjour, Afschin. 2024. “Determining the Societal Value of a Prospective Drug for ME/CFS in Germany.” PLoS ONE 19 (7): e0307086. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307086.

Gerwyn, Morris, and Michael Maes. 2017. “Mechanisms Explaining Muscle Fatigue and Muscle Pain in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS): A Review of Recent Findings.” Current Rheumatology Reports 19 (1): 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11926-017-0628-x.

GmbH, Risklayer. 2025. “Update 2025: Modellierung Der COVID-Infektionszahlen in Deutschland 2020–2025.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/400861280_Update_2025_Modellierung_der_COVID-Infektionszahlen_in_Deutschland_2020-2025.

Hejbøl, Eva K., Thomas Harbo, Jane Agergaard, Louise B. Madsen, Thomas H. Pedersen, Lars J. Østergaard, Hatice Tankisi, and Henrik D. Schrøder. 2022. “Myopathy as a Cause of Fatigue in Long-Term Post-COVID-19 Symptoms: Evidence of Skeletal Muscle Histopathology.” European Journal of Neurology 29 (9): 2832–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.15435.

Jason, Leonard A, and Arthur A Mirin. 2020. “Updating the National Academy of Medicine ME/CFS Prevalence and Economic Impact Figures to Account for Population Growth and Inflation.” Fatigue: Biomedicine, Health & Behavior 8 (2): 60–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/21641846.2020.1779051.

Soares, Madu N., Morne Eggelbusch, Elie Naddaf, Karin H. L. Gerrits, Marike van der Schaaf, Bram van den Borst, W. Joost Wiersinga, et al. 2022. “Skeletal Muscle Alterations in Patients with Acute COVID-19 and Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19.” Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle 13 (1): 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12872.

Vecchiet, L., G. Montanari, E. Pizzigallo, S. Iezzi, P. de Bigontina, L. Dragani, J. Vecchiet, and M. A. Giamberardino. 1996. “Sensory Characterization of Somatic Parietal Tissues in Humans with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.” Neuroscience Letters 208 (2): 117–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(96)12559-3.

Vester, Patricia, Stefanos Boudouroglou-Walter, Jonas Schreyögg, Chantal Wieting, and Christine Blome. 2026. “Burden of Disease in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS): A Scoping Review.” Applied Health Economics and Health Policy 24 (1): 147–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-025-01006-2.

Walter, Nike, Markus Rupp, Siegmund Lang, Beate Leinberger, Volker Alt, Thilo Hinterberger, and Thomas Loew. 2022. “A Comprehensive Report of German Nationwide Inpatient Data on the Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Including Annual Direct Healthcare Costs.” Viruses 14 (12): 2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14122600.

Yin, Hang, Feodor Price, and Michael A. Rudnicki. 2013. “Satellite Cells and the Muscle Stem Cell Niche.” Physiological Reviews 93 (1): 23–67. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00043.2011.